Antibiotic resistance and human health risks, A Review
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Maliheh Hosseinpour,1,*
1. M.Sc; Molecular Genetic; Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, Arak University, Arak, Iran
- Introduction: Antibiotics are widely used to improve human, animal, and plant health. Antibiotics, with antimicrobial activity, can cause the development of antibiotic-resistant genes and antibiotic-resistant bacteria. The main genetic mechanisms that lead to antibiotic resistance are mutations and the gaining of new genetic material. Genes encoding antibiotic resistance in bacteria can be located on various genetic components in bacterial cells such as genomic DNA (internal resistance), plasmids, transposons, and integrons. Antibiotic resistance can be achieved using four main strategies: 1) decreased membrane permeability to antibiotics, 2) antibiotic inactivation, 3) rapid release of antibiotics, and 4) change in target sites of antibiotics (such as mutations). The distribution of ARGs may be affected by many factors, including antibiotics, heavy metal ions, wastewater, several seasonally sensitive factors (rainfall, bird migration), and physical forces (such as water and wind, including erosion and rock washing). The aquatic environment is a receptive source of antibiotics and antibiotic-resistant genes and an ideal environment for bacterial growth and horizontal gene transfer. Exposure of the skin while swimming in surface water with antimicrobial agents can occur through scratched skin and wounds or mucous membranes. Studies have reported that bird droppings carry large amounts of ARGs. In addition, antibiotic-resistant genes (ARGs) can be propagated among species through horizontal gene transfer (HGT). This HGT occurs when antibiotic resistance encoded by a genetic material is placed on motile genetic agents such as plasmids, transposons, or integrons to be exchanged between microorganisms. This transfer pathway allows resistance genes to be transferred to a larger part of the bacterial community in a specific environment. ARGs can also be transmitted to their microbial offspring via vertical transfer (VGT).
- Methods: This study has performed by searching the “PubMed database” and “Google scholar” by different combinations of terms “antibiotic” and “resistance”. Antibiotics and their effects on environment were investigated.
- Results: Antibiotics, because of their capacity to alter the structure and function of microbes, can affect the microbial community and endanger human health. This has led to public and environmental health concerns. Recent studies have shown that water (surface water, effluent, etc.) can be considered as reservoirs for the transmission and spread of antibiotic-resistant bacteria (ARB). Therefore, the release of ARB into wastewater and surface water can be dangerous to public health.
- Conclusion: ARGs have attracted some attention in recent years, however, there is still a need for more effort to reduce the possibility of ARGs entering and spreading into the environment.
- Keywords: Antibiotics, Antibiotic resistance, Environment.
